Hidden Threat: Forever Chemicals Stealthily Pollute Drinking Water Wells
In 2022, Kristen Hanneman made a seemingly small decision that would drastically change the course of her life and her entire community. State scientists were conducting tests on private drinking water wells across Wisconsin for a family of harmful chemicals known as PFAS. Without much thought, she accepted an offer to test the well outside her farmhouse, nestled among potato farms and dense forests.
Months later, Hanneman received a shocking call from a state toxicologist: she was advised to stop drinking the water immediately. The well, which had served her family for years, contained PFAS levels thousands of times higher than federal drinking water limits.
Hanneman’s well was not an isolated case. The chemicals were pervasive, contaminating pristine lakes and affecting local wildlife. Officials warned residents to limit their consumption of fish and deer from the area. For many long-time residents, the thought of moving away was daunting; who would want to buy property in such a compromised environment?
“Had I just thrown that survey in the garbage,” Hanneman pondered, “would any of this be where it is today?”
Stella, the town in question, is not alone. Numerous communities near industrial sites and military bases across the nation are grappling with similar contamination issues. PFAS, often referred to as “forever chemicals,” resist breaking down in the environment and accumulate in the human body, leading to serious health risks, including certain cancers and developmental delays in children.
Government estimates suggest that nearly half of U.S. households have some level of PFAS in their water, whether from private wells or municipal supplies. While federal regulations impose strict limits on water provided by utilities, these rules do not extend to the approximately 40 million Americans relying on private wells. Without random testing, many residents remain unaware of the potential dangers lurking in their water.
At least 20 states do not routinely test private wells for PFAS unless contamination is already suspected. Even in states that do, residents often face long wait times for assistance and receive fewer resources than those connected to municipal water systems.
PFAS are prevalent due to their unique properties, which make them ideal for waterproofing shoes, nonstick cookware, and firefighting foam. However, once these chemicals enter the soil or water, they are incredibly difficult to remove. For example, North Carolina has seen well owners downstream from a PFAS manufacturing plant struggle with contaminated water for years.
Well Owners Often Last to Know
The alarming results from Hanneman’s well prompted a wave of testing in the area, revealing widespread contamination. Initially, the source of the PFAS was a mystery, but state officials eventually traced it back to a paper mill in Rhinelander, about 10 miles away. The mill had produced paper for microwave popcorn bags, which were greaseproof due to PFAS.
For decades, the mill’s waste sludge was spread on local farmlands, a practice that continued with state approval until the dangers of PFAS became widely recognized. Wisconsin officials now believe that this sludge seeped into the groundwater, contaminating wells throughout Stella.
In September, the state began assigning cleanup responsibilities to current and former mill owners, who argue that they followed state regulations at the time. The problem remained hidden for so long because well owners lack the utility oversight that would typically prompt testing.
By 2019, the Rhinelander water utility had shut down two public wells due to PFAS contamination, while many Stella residents only discovered their water was unsafe last year.
The Hanneman family, who moved into their home when their oldest son was nearly two, now faces the long-term consequences of exposure. They have joined a lawsuit against the paper mill’s owners and PFAS manufacturers, alleging property damage and health issues linked to contaminated groundwater.
As scientists have learned more about the risks associated with PFAS, federal guidelines for water utilities have tightened. The current limit is just 4 parts per trillion, a minuscule amount. The Environmental Protection Agency recommends that private wells be tested for common contaminants, but not PFAS unless there is a known local issue. Many well owners value their independence from government oversight and are reluctant to accept testing mandates.
In Stella, residents are left grappling with the unpredictable nature of PFAS contamination. Some wells have tested clean, while others have shown alarming levels of PFAS. For instance, one neighbor found 1,500 parts per trillion in her well, far exceeding federal limits. The uncertainty has led many to rely on bottled water, fearing for their health.
House by House
Unlike utilities that can implement centralized treatment solutions, restoring safe water for well owners often requires individual attention. In Peshtigo, Wisconsin, the situation varies dramatically depending on where residents live. The town faced a crisis nearly a decade ago when PFAS were detected in wells downstream from a fire technology plant. While some residents received assistance, others were left to fend for themselves.
Kayla Furton, a local teacher, became involved in town leadership to advocate for her community. She noted that groundwater does not adhere to arbitrary boundaries, making it challenging to address contamination effectively.
In North Carolina, residents along the Cape Fear River have witnessed the far-reaching effects of PFAS contamination. A chemical plant was found to be polluting the river, leading to extensive testing of nearby wells. Seven years later, contamination has spread far beyond initial estimates, affecting drinking water along nearly 100 miles of the river.
As states grapple with the PFAS crisis, many lack the resources to adequately support well owners. Michigan has taken proactive steps, offering free testing and grants for cleanup, while other states struggle to find funding. In Wisconsin, the environmental agency has had to divert resources from other programs to address the issue.
Despite the challenges, residents like Hanneman are determined to advocate for their community. She has taken on a leadership role, educating others about the dangers of PFAS and pushing for accountability from those responsible for the contamination.
As the crisis continues, the residents of Stella remain vigilant, navigating a new normal in a town forever changed by the presence of these harmful chemicals.
___
Associated Press writers Todd Richmond in Madison, Wis., Jason Dearen in Los Angeles, and M.K. Wildeman in Hartford, Conn., contributed. Dylan Jackson and Justin Price of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution contributed from Atlanta.
___
This story is part of an investigative collaboration with The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, The Post and Courier, and AL.com. It is supported through AP’s Local Investigative Reporting Program.
Copyright 2026 Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.
In 2022, Kristen Hanneman made a seemingly small decision that would drastically change the course of her life and her entire community. State scientists were conducting tests on private drinking water wells across Wisconsin for a family of harmful chemicals known as PFAS. Without much thought, she accepted an offer to test the well outside her farmhouse, nestled among potato farms and dense forests.
Months later, Hanneman received a shocking call from a state toxicologist: she was advised to stop drinking the water immediately. The well, which had served her family for years, contained PFAS levels thousands of times higher than federal drinking water limits.
Hanneman’s well was not an isolated case. The chemicals were pervasive, contaminating pristine lakes and affecting local wildlife. Officials warned residents to limit their consumption of fish and deer from the area. For many long-time residents, the thought of moving away was daunting; who would want to buy property in such a compromised environment?
“Had I just thrown that survey in the garbage,” Hanneman pondered, “would any of this be where it is today?”
Stella, the town in question, is not alone. Numerous communities near industrial sites and military bases across the nation are grappling with similar contamination issues. PFAS, often referred to as “forever chemicals,” resist breaking down in the environment and accumulate in the human body, leading to serious health risks, including certain cancers and developmental delays in children.
Government estimates suggest that nearly half of U.S. households have some level of PFAS in their water, whether from private wells or municipal supplies. While federal regulations impose strict limits on water provided by utilities, these rules do not extend to the approximately 40 million Americans relying on private wells. Without random testing, many residents remain unaware of the potential dangers lurking in their water.
At least 20 states do not routinely test private wells for PFAS unless contamination is already suspected. Even in states that do, residents often face long wait times for assistance and receive fewer resources than those connected to municipal water systems.
PFAS are prevalent due to their unique properties, which make them ideal for waterproofing shoes, nonstick cookware, and firefighting foam. However, once these chemicals enter the soil or water, they are incredibly difficult to remove. For example, North Carolina has seen well owners downstream from a PFAS manufacturing plant struggle with contaminated water for years.
Well Owners Often Last to Know
The alarming results from Hanneman’s well prompted a wave of testing in the area, revealing widespread contamination. Initially, the source of the PFAS was a mystery, but state officials eventually traced it back to a paper mill in Rhinelander, about 10 miles away. The mill had produced paper for microwave popcorn bags, which were greaseproof due to PFAS.
For decades, the mill’s waste sludge was spread on local farmlands, a practice that continued with state approval until the dangers of PFAS became widely recognized. Wisconsin officials now believe that this sludge seeped into the groundwater, contaminating wells throughout Stella.
In September, the state began assigning cleanup responsibilities to current and former mill owners, who argue that they followed state regulations at the time. The problem remained hidden for so long because well owners lack the utility oversight that would typically prompt testing.
By 2019, the Rhinelander water utility had shut down two public wells due to PFAS contamination, while many Stella residents only discovered their water was unsafe last year.
The Hanneman family, who moved into their home when their oldest son was nearly two, now faces the long-term consequences of exposure. They have joined a lawsuit against the paper mill’s owners and PFAS manufacturers, alleging property damage and health issues linked to contaminated groundwater.
As scientists have learned more about the risks associated with PFAS, federal guidelines for water utilities have tightened. The current limit is just 4 parts per trillion, a minuscule amount. The Environmental Protection Agency recommends that private wells be tested for common contaminants, but not PFAS unless there is a known local issue. Many well owners value their independence from government oversight and are reluctant to accept testing mandates.
In Stella, residents are left grappling with the unpredictable nature of PFAS contamination. Some wells have tested clean, while others have shown alarming levels of PFAS. For instance, one neighbor found 1,500 parts per trillion in her well, far exceeding federal limits. The uncertainty has led many to rely on bottled water, fearing for their health.
House by House
Unlike utilities that can implement centralized treatment solutions, restoring safe water for well owners often requires individual attention. In Peshtigo, Wisconsin, the situation varies dramatically depending on where residents live. The town faced a crisis nearly a decade ago when PFAS were detected in wells downstream from a fire technology plant. While some residents received assistance, others were left to fend for themselves.
Kayla Furton, a local teacher, became involved in town leadership to advocate for her community. She noted that groundwater does not adhere to arbitrary boundaries, making it challenging to address contamination effectively.
In North Carolina, residents along the Cape Fear River have witnessed the far-reaching effects of PFAS contamination. A chemical plant was found to be polluting the river, leading to extensive testing of nearby wells. Seven years later, contamination has spread far beyond initial estimates, affecting drinking water along nearly 100 miles of the river.
As states grapple with the PFAS crisis, many lack the resources to adequately support well owners. Michigan has taken proactive steps, offering free testing and grants for cleanup, while other states struggle to find funding. In Wisconsin, the environmental agency has had to divert resources from other programs to address the issue.
Despite the challenges, residents like Hanneman are determined to advocate for their community. She has taken on a leadership role, educating others about the dangers of PFAS and pushing for accountability from those responsible for the contamination.
As the crisis continues, the residents of Stella remain vigilant, navigating a new normal in a town forever changed by the presence of these harmful chemicals.
___
Associated Press writers Todd Richmond in Madison, Wis., Jason Dearen in Los Angeles, and M.K. Wildeman in Hartford, Conn., contributed. Dylan Jackson and Justin Price of The Atlanta Journal-Constitution contributed from Atlanta.
___
This story is part of an investigative collaboration with The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, The Post and Courier, and AL.com. It is supported through AP’s Local Investigative Reporting Program.
Copyright 2026 Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.
